The Delhi Sultanate: Polity, Administration and Culture
Delhi Sultanate for UPSC — sultans, iqta and revenue, Alauddin's market reforms, Muhammad bin Tughlaq's experiments, Indo-Islamic architecture and literature.
SyllabusGS I · History of India (Prelims); Indian culture — salient aspects of art forms, literature and architecture from ancient to modern times (Mains GS I)
Prerequisites: Northern Kingdoms and the Tripartite Struggle · Chapter overview
The Hook: A Fourteenth-Century Experiment With Token Money
Around 1329–30, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered that coins of bronze or copper be accepted at the value of the silver tanka. According to the historian Ziauddin Barani, forgery spread rapidly, trade was disrupted, and the experiment had to be withdrawn — the treasury redeemed the token coins in silver and gold.
The question this raises: how did the Delhi Sultans finance their army and government — and what lasting culture did three centuries of Sultanate rule leave behind?
The Core Concept
The five dynasties
| Dynasty | Period | Key rulers |
|---|---|---|
| Mamluk (Slave, or Ilbari) | 1206–1290 | Qutbuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia, Balban |
| Khalji | 1290–1320 | Jalaluddin, Alauddin |
| Tughlaq | 1320–1414 | Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah |
| Sayyid | 1414–1451 | Khizr Khan |
| Lodi (Afghan) | 1451–1526 | Bahlul, Sikandar, Ibrahim |
graph LR
A[Mamluk 1206] --> B[Khalji 1290]
B --> C[Tughlaq 1320]
C --> D[Timur's sack of Delhi 1398]
D --> E[Sayyid 1414]
E --> F[Lodi 1451]
F --> G[Panipat 1526: Babur]The Mamluks (1206–1290)
- Qutbuddin Aibak (1206–1210): a slave-general of Muhammad Ghori; ruled from Lahore; known for generosity (lakh-baksh); began the Qutb Minar and built the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi and the Adhai Din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer, both reusing materials from earlier temples; died after a fall while playing chaugan (polo).
- Iltutmish (1211–1236): the real consolidator; made Delhi the capital; organised the iqta system; issued the silver tanka and copper jital; formed the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (“the Forty”, a corps of Turkish nobles); received a letter of investiture from the Abbasid Caliph (1229); kept Delhi out of Chinggis Khan’s path by refusing refuge to the Khwarizmian prince Jalaluddin Mangbarni; completed the Qutb Minar.
- Razia (1236–1240): the only woman to rule from the throne of Delhi; set aside purdah, held court in public; her promotion of the Abyssinian Jamaluddin Yaqut angered the Turkish nobles, who deposed her.
- Balban (1266–1287): theory of kingship — the Sultan as Zil-i-Ilahi (shadow of God); court ceremonies of sijda (prostration) and paibos (kissing the feet); the Persian festival of Nauroz; broke the power of the Forty; a strong spy system; reorganised the army (Diwan-i-Arz) and defended the north-west against the Mongols — a policy described as one of “blood and iron”.
The Khaljis (1290–1320)
Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) — the most ambitious administrator of the Sultanate.
| Area | Reform |
|---|---|
| Army | A large standing army paid in cash; dagh (branding of horses) and huliya or chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers) to stop fraud |
| Market control | Fixed prices for grain, cloth, horses and other goods; state granaries; a market controller (Shahna-i-Mandi); a department of markets (Diwan-i-Riyasat); spies to report violations — described in detail by Barani |
| Land revenue | Revenue assessed by measurement (masahat) and fixed at half the produce; a house tax (ghari) and a grazing tax (charai); privileges of rural intermediaries (khuts, muqaddams) curtailed; a department for arrears (Diwan-i-Mustakhraj) |
| Expansion | Gujarat, Ranthambore, Chittor, Malwa; Malik Kafur’s campaigns to Devagiri (Yadavas), Warangal (Kakatiyas), Dwarasamudra (Hoysalas) and Madurai (Pandyas) |
| Mongols | Repeated Mongol invasions repulsed |
| Building | The Alai Darwaza (1311), the new city of Siri, and the Hauz-i-Alai tank |
The Tughlaqs (1320–1414)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351) — a learned but controversial ruler:
| Experiment | What happened |
|---|---|
| Shift of capital to Daulatabad (Devagiri), 1327 | Officials and many residents moved south; the move was later reversed |
| Token currency, c. 1329–30 | Bronze/copper coins at the value of silver; forgery; withdrawn |
| Taxation in the Doab | Raised during a period of famine; caused distress and revolt |
| Khurasan expedition | A large army raised and then disbanded without fighting |
| Qarachil expedition | Campaign into the Kumaon hills; heavy losses |
| Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi | A department to extend cultivation, with loans (taqavi) to peasants |
The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta arrived in 1333, served as qazi of Delhi, and was sent as the Sultan’s envoy to China (1342); his travel account is the Rihla. Revolts during this reign led to the founding of Vijayanagara (1336) and the Bahmani kingdom (1347).
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388):
- Ruled according to the advice of the ulema; collected the four taxes sanctioned by Islamic law (kharaj, jizya, khams, zakat) and extended the jizya to brahmanas.
- Welfare departments: Diwan-i-Khairat (charity, including help for the marriage of poor girls), a hospital (Dar-ul-Shifa), and an employment bureau; Diwan-i-Bandagan for the large body of royal slaves.
- Public works: canals from the Yamuna and Sutlej; new towns — Firozabad (Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi), Hisar, Jaunpur, Fatehabad; repaired the Qutb Minar.
- Heritage: moved two Ashokan pillars (from Topra and Meerut) to Delhi; had Sanskrit works translated into Persian; wrote the Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi.
- Made iqtas and army posts hereditary — weakening central control.
Timur invaded and sacked Delhi in 1398, hastening the Tughlaqs’ collapse.
The Sayyids and the Lodis (1414–1526)
- Khizr Khan, Timur’s governor of Multan, founded the Sayyid line.
- Bahlul Lodi founded the first Afghan dynasty of Delhi.
- Sikandar Lodi founded Agra (1504), introduced the gaz-i-Sikandari (a measuring yard used for land) and wrote Persian verse under the name Gulrukhi.
- Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed by Babur at the First Battle of Panipat (1526).
Administration
Central government
| Department | Function | Head |
|---|---|---|
| Diwan-i-Wizarat | Finance and revenue | Wazir |
| Diwan-i-Arz | Military — recruitment, inspection | Ariz-i-Mumalik |
| Diwan-i-Insha | Royal correspondence | Dabir-i-Khas |
| Diwan-i-Risalat | Religious matters and grants | Sadr-us-Sudur |
| Diwan-i-Qaza | Justice | Qazi-ul-Quzat |
| Barid-i-Mumalik | Intelligence and posts | — |
The iqta system: territory was divided into iqtas, whose revenue was assigned to officers (muqtis or iqtadars) in return for maintaining troops and keeping order. Iqtas were meant to be transferable; Firoz Shah made them effectively hereditary. Land whose revenue went directly to the treasury was khalisa.
Local administration: provinces → shiqs (under a shiqdar) → parganas → villages, where hereditary intermediaries — the khut, muqaddam (headman) and chaudhari — and the village accountant (patwari) linked peasants to the state.
Taxes: kharaj (land revenue), jizya (on non-Muslims; women, children and the infirm were exempt), khams (a share of war booty), zakat (a religious tax on Muslims).
Culture
Indo-Islamic architecture — what was new
- The true arch (built with wedge-shaped voussoirs and a keystone) and the true dome, replacing the Indian trabeate (beam-and-lintel) system and corbelled arches.
- Lime mortar; calligraphy (Quranic verses), arabesque and geometric ornament in place of human or animal figures.
- Red sandstone with white marble inlay; Indian craftsmen added lotus and bell motifs — a synthesis.
| Monument | Builder | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Delhi | Aibak | Corbelled arches — before the true arch was mastered |
| Qutb Minar | Begun by Aibak, completed by Iltutmish; repaired by Firoz Shah | UNESCO World Heritage Site (1993, with its monuments) |
| Adhai Din ka Jhonpra, Ajmer | Aibak | Calligraphic screen |
| Tomb of Balban | Balban | Usually cited as the earliest true arch in India |
| Alai Darwaza | Alauddin Khalji (1311) | Gateway to the Qutb complex; usually cited as the first true dome; red sandstone with marble inlay |
| Tughlaqabad and Ghiyasuddin’s tomb | Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq | Sloping (battered) walls, austere style |
| Firoz Shah Kotla, Hauz Khas madrasa | Firoz Shah | Reused Ashokan pillar at Kotla |
| Lodi tombs, Delhi | Lodis | Octagonal tombs; the double dome appears |
Literature and learning
| Writer | Work |
|---|---|
| Minhaj-us-Siraj | Tabaqat-i-Nasiri |
| Ziauddin Barani | Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi; Fatawa-i-Jahandari (political ideas) |
| Isami | Futuh-us-Salatin |
| Amir Khusrau | Khazain-ul-Futuh (Alauddin’s campaigns), Nuh Sipihr, Tughlaq Nama, and many poems in Persian and Hindavi |
| Ibn Battuta | Rihla |
Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), called Tuti-i-Hind (“Parrot of India”), served several sultans and was a disciple of the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya. Tradition credits him with shaping qawwali and with musical innovations, though some attributions (such as the sitar and tabla) are disputed by historians.
Other cultural currents: the Chishti and Suhrawardi Sufi orders; the Bhakti movement; the growth of Hindavi, the ancestor of Hindi and Urdu. Historians such as Irfan Habib link the period with the spread of the spinning wheel, the carder’s bow and paper.
Memory Anchors
Dynasties in order: “My Kind Teacher Says Learn” → Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi.
Departments and their creators
| Department | Creator |
|---|---|
| Diwan-i-Mustakhraj (arrears), Diwan-i-Riyasat (markets) | Alauddin Khalji |
| Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi (agriculture) | Muhammad bin Tughlaq |
| Diwan-i-Khairat (charity), Diwan-i-Bandagan (slaves) | Firoz Shah Tughlaq |
“First” women and firsts: Razia — only woman sultan; Iltutmish — tanka and jital; Alauddin — standing cash-paid army and market control; Bahlul — first Afghan dynasty.
For Prelims
- Iltutmish — iqta system organised, tanka and jital, the Forty, Caliph’s investiture (1229), Qutb Minar completed.
- Balban — Zil-i-Ilahi, sijda, paibos, Nauroz.
- Alauddin — dagh, huliya, market control, revenue at half the produce, Alai Darwaza (1311).
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq — Daulatabad (1327), token currency (c. 1329–30), Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi; Ibn Battuta (1333).
- Firoz Shah — Diwan-i-Khairat, Dar-ul-Shifa, canals, Ashokan pillars to Delhi, hereditary iqtas.
- Sikandar Lodi — Agra (1504), gaz-i-Sikandari.
For Mains
- Dimensions: state formation and centralisation; agrarian and fiscal systems; Indo-Islamic architecture as synthesis; language and literature (Persian, Hindavi); Sufi and Bhakti interaction; technology transfer.
- Keywords: iqta, khalisa, theory of kingship, market regulation, true arch, synthesis, composite culture, Hindavi.
- Value-addition: Amir Khusrau’s praise of India and its languages in the Nuh Sipihr; Firoz Shah’s preservation of Ashokan pillars; the Qutb complex as a record of successive building traditions.
Common Traps
Practice
Prelims
Consider the following pairs:
| Department | Sultan who created it |
|---|---|
| 1. Diwan-i-Riyasat | Alauddin Khalji |
| 2. Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi | Muhammad bin Tughlaq |
| 3. Diwan-i-Bandagan | Balban |
| 4. Diwan-i-Mustakhraj | Firoz Shah Tughlaq |
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Solution
Pairs 1 and 2 are correct. The Diwan-i-Bandagan (department of slaves) was created by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, and the Diwan-i-Mustakhraj (recovery of arrears) by Alauddin Khalji. Two pairs are correct.
Answer: B
Consider the following statements about Alauddin Khalji:
- He introduced the branding of horses (dagh) and a descriptive roll of soldiers.
- He fixed land revenue at half the produce, assessed by measurement.
- He introduced token currency in bronze and copper.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Solution
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: the token currency was Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s experiment (c. 1329–30).
Answer: A
Consider the following statements about Amir Khusrau:
- He is known as Tuti-i-Hind.
- He was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
- He wrote the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Solution
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri is by Minhaj-us-Siraj. Khusrau’s historical works include the Khazain-ul-Futuh and the Tughlaq Nama.
Answer: D
Mains
Indo-Islamic architecture under the Delhi Sultanate was a synthesis of indigenous and foreign elements. Elaborate.
Solution
Introduction: From 1206 the Delhi Sultans brought Central Asian and Persian building ideas to India. Executed largely by Indian craftsmen, these produced a new, composite style.
Body — foreign elements:
- True arch and dome; lime mortar; minarets; calligraphy, arabesque and geometric ornament; the mosque and tomb as building types.
Body — indigenous elements:
- Indian masons and materials (red sandstone, marble); motifs such as the lotus, bell and creepers; corbelling in early buildings (Quwwat-ul-Islam).
Body — stages of evolution:
- Mamluk: Qutb Minar, Quwwat-ul-Islam, Adhai Din ka Jhonpra — reused materials, corbelled arches; Balban’s tomb — usually cited as the first true arch.
- Khalji: Alai Darwaza (1311) — true dome, marble inlay, horseshoe arches.
- Tughlaq: sloping walls and austerity (Tughlaqabad, Ghiyasuddin’s tomb); new cities.
- Lodi: octagonal tombs, double domes — a bridge to Mughal architecture.
Conclusion: Sultanate architecture fused imported engineering with Indian craftsmanship, creating the foundation on which the Mughals built a fully mature Indo-Islamic style.
Quick Revision
| Point | One-liner |
|---|---|
| Aibak | Began Qutb Minar; Quwwat-ul-Islam; Adhai Din ka Jhonpra |
| Iltutmish | Iqta; tanka/jital; the Forty; completed Qutb Minar |
| Razia | Only woman sultan; Yaqut |
| Balban | Zil-i-Ilahi; sijda, paibos |
| Alauddin | Dagh, huliya; market control; Alai Darwaza |
| Muhammad bin Tughlaq | Daulatabad; token currency; Ibn Battuta |
| Firoz Shah | Welfare departments; canals; Ashokan pillars; hereditary iqtas |
| Timur | Sacked Delhi, 1398 |
| Lodis | Agra (Sikandar); Panipat 1526 (Ibrahim) |
| Architecture | True arch and dome; calligraphy; synthesis |
Key Takeaways
- Learn each sultan as a bundle: reforms, departments, monuments, chroniclers.
- The iqta and revenue systems are the backbone of Sultanate administration — and the base the Mughals reshaped.
- For Mains, Sultanate culture is a story of synthesis — in architecture, language, music and religion.
Related Topics
- Vijayanagara and the Bahmani Kingdom
- Delhi Sultanate — quick revision
- Delhi Sultanate — practice questions
- Bhakti and Sufi Movements
- The Mughal Empire