Vijayanagara and the Bahmani Kingdom
Vijayanagara and the Deccan sultanates for UPSC — Krishnadevaraya, travellers, nayankara and ayagar systems, Hampi, the Bahmanis, Mahmud Gawan and Talikota.
SyllabusGS I · History of India (Prelims); Indian culture — salient aspects of art forms, literature and architecture from ancient to modern times (Mains GS I)
Prerequisites: The Delhi Sultanate: Polity, Administration and Culture
The Hook: A City “As Large as Rome”
Around 1520 the Portuguese visitor Domingo Paes reached Vijayanagara, the capital of Krishnadevaraya, and wrote that the city was as large as Rome and very beautiful to the sight, with markets full of rubies, diamonds and pearls. Less than half a century later, after the Battle of Talikota (1565), the city was sacked and abandoned. Its ruins at Hampi became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.
The question this raises: how did a Deccan kingdom become one of the richest states of its age — and why did it fall so quickly?
The Core Concept
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–c. 1650)
Foundation: in 1336 the brothers Harihara I and Bukka I, sons of Sangama, founded the kingdom on the south bank of the Tungabhadra, during the revolts against Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Tradition credits the guidance of the sage Vidyaranya. His brother Sayana wrote a celebrated commentary on the Vedas under the early kings.
Four dynasties
| Dynasty | Period | Key rulers |
|---|---|---|
| Sangama | 1336–1485 | Harihara I, Bukka I, Deva Raya I, Deva Raya II |
| Saluva | 1485–1505 | Saluva Narasimha |
| Tuluva | 1505–1570 | Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529), Achyuta Deva Raya, Sadashiva Raya (with Aliya Rama Raya as the real power) |
| Aravidu | 1570–c. 1650 | Tirumala; capital moved south (Penukonda, later Chandragiri and Vellore) |
Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) — the greatest ruler:
- Defeated the Gajapatis of Odisha and the Sultan of Bijapur (capture of Raichur, 1520); kept friendly ties with the Portuguese, who supplied war-horses.
- Wrote the Telugu Amuktamalyada (the story of the Vaishnava saint Andal, with advice on statecraft) and the Sanskrit Jambavati Kalyanam.
- His court poets, the Ashtadiggajas (“eight elephants”), included Allasani Peddana (Manucharitamu) and Tenali Ramakrishna.
- Added large gopurams (raya gopurams) and halls to temples; built the town of Nagalapuram.
Battle of Talikota (1565) — also called Rakshasa-Tangadi or the Battle of Bannihatti. An alliance of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bidar (Berar stayed out) defeated Aliya Rama Raya, who was killed; the capital was plundered. The empire survived further south under the Aravidus, but its power was broken. Its nayakas became independent rulers (Madurai, Thanjavur, Gingee, Ikkeri).
Foreign travellers
| Traveller | Origin | Ruler / period |
|---|---|---|
| Niccolo de Conti | Italian (Venetian) | Deva Raya I |
| Abdur Razzaq | Persian (envoy of the Timurid Shah Rukh) | Deva Raya II (1440s) |
| Afanasy Nikitin | Russian (merchant from Tver) | Visited the Bahmani kingdom, not Vijayanagara |
| Duarte Barbosa | Portuguese | Early 16th century |
| Domingo Paes | Portuguese | Krishnadevaraya (c. 1520) |
| Fernao Nuniz | Portuguese | Achyuta Deva Raya (c. 1530s) |
Administration and society
- Nayankara system: military chiefs (nayakas, or amara-nayakas) received territory (amaram) to collect revenue, maintain a fixed number of troops and horses for the king, and pay tribute. It gave military strength but enabled the nayakas to break away later.
- Ayagar system: a body of twelve hereditary village functionaries (ayagars) — such as the headman, accountant and watchman — paid through tax-free land grants.
- Units: rajya or mandalam (province) → nadu → sthala → grama.
- Economy: temple-centred towns; overseas trade through west-coast ports; imported horses from Arabia and Central Asia; gold coins called varaha (the “pagoda” of European accounts).
- Society: the Mahanavami festival, celebrated on the great platform (Mahanavami Dibba); women in palace service as accountants, guards and wrestlers (Nuniz); sati and the devadasi system were also recorded by travellers.
- Literature: a high point of Telugu literature; Kannada and Sanskrit also flourished.
Architecture at Hampi
| Feature | Example |
|---|---|
| Raya gopurams — towering gateways that dominate the temple | Virupaksha temple |
| Kalyana mandapa — pillared hall for the deity’s ritual marriage | Vitthala temple |
| Ornate pillars with rearing horses and mythical yalis | Vitthala temple |
| Stone chariot shrine | Vitthala temple complex |
| Narrative relief panels of the Ramayana | Hazara Rama temple |
| Secular buildings mixing Indo-Islamic arches with Indian forms | Lotus Mahal, Elephant Stables |
| Royal platform | Mahanavami Dibba |
The Bahmani kingdom (1347–c. 1527)
- Founded in 1347 by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu), a rebel against Muhammad bin Tughlaq; capital Gulbarga, later moved to Bidar by Ahmad Shah I.
- Mahmud Gawan, a Persian merchant-scholar, served as chief minister (wazir) under Muhammad Shah III. He divided the provinces (tarafs) into smaller units to curb governors, reformed revenue, and built a great madrasa at Bidar (1472). Court factions led to his execution in 1481.
- The Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited the kingdom in the reign of Muhammad Shah III.
- Conflict with Vijayanagara centred on the fertile Raichur doab between the Krishna and Tungabhadra.
The five Deccan sultanates (from the late 15th century)
| Sultanate | Dynasty | Capital | Remember |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bijapur | Adil Shahi | Bijapur | Gol Gumbaz (tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah), with its whispering gallery; Ibrahim Adil Shah II’s Kitab-i-Nauras (songs) |
| Ahmadnagar | Nizam Shahi | Ahmadnagar | Chand Bibi defended it against Akbar’s army; Malik Ambar’s revenue reforms and guerrilla tactics |
| Golconda | Qutb Shahi | Golconda / Hyderabad | Charminar (1591), built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, founder of Hyderabad; diamonds |
| Bidar | Barid Shahi | Bidar | Successor at the old Bahmani capital |
| Berar | Imad Shahi | Ellichpur | Stayed out of the Talikota alliance |
graph TD
A[Revolts against Muhammad bin Tughlaq] --> B[Vijayanagara 1336]
A --> C[Bahmani kingdom 1347]
C --> D[Five Deccan sultanates]
B --> E[Krishnadevaraya: peak 1509-1529]
D --> F[Talikota 1565]
E --> F
F --> G[Nayaka kingdoms in the south]Memory Anchors
Vijayanagara dynasties: “Some Say True Art” → Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu.
Travellers: “Nice Art Pleases Nobles” → Niccolo de Conti (Deva Raya I), Abdur Razzaq (Deva Raya II), Paes (Krishnadevaraya), Nuniz (Achyuta) — and remember that Nikitin went to the Bahmanis.
Deccan sultanates by monument: Bijapur — Gol Gumbaz; Golconda — Charminar; Bidar — Mahmud Gawan’s Madrasa (Bahmani).
For Prelims
- Vijayanagara founded 1336 (Harihara I and Bukka I); Bahmani kingdom 1347 (Hasan Gangu).
- Krishnadevaraya — Amuktamalyada (Telugu); Ashtadiggajas; Raichur (1520).
- Talikota, 1565 — Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, Bidar vs Aliya Rama Raya; Berar stayed out.
- Abdur Razzaq — Deva Raya II; Nikitin — Bahmanis.
- Ayagars — twelve village functionaries; amaram — land held by nayakas.
- Gol Gumbaz — Bijapur; Charminar (1591) — Golconda/Hyderabad; Mahmud Gawan’s madrasa — Bidar.
For Mains
- Dimensions: Vijayanagara as a patron of Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit literature; temple architecture and the raya gopuram; urban planning and water systems at Hampi; the nayankara system and its long-term effects; Deccan Indo-Islamic culture (Dakhani, Deccani painting, Bijapur and Golconda architecture).
- Keywords: nayankara, amaram, ayagar, raya gopuram, kalyana mandapa, Raichur doab, Deccani culture, Dakhani.
- Value-addition: the eyewitness accounts of Paes and Nuniz; the Gol Gumbaz dome among the largest of its time; Mahmud Gawan’s madrasa as a centre of learning.
Common Traps
Practice
Prelims
Consider the following pairs of foreign traveller and the kingdom or ruler visited:
- Niccolo de Conti — Deva Raya I
- Abdur Razzaq — Deva Raya II
- Domingo Paes — Krishnadevaraya
- Afanasy Nikitin — Krishnadevaraya
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Solution
Pairs 1, 2 and 3 are correct. Afanasy Nikitin, the Russian merchant, visited the Bahmani kingdom in the reign of Muhammad Shah III, decades before Krishnadevaraya. Three pairs are correct.
Answer: C
Consider the following statements about the Battle of Talikota:
- It was fought in 1565, and Aliya Rama Raya was killed.
- Berar did not join the alliance of Deccan sultanates.
- Krishnadevaraya led the Vijayanagara forces.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Solution
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: Krishnadevaraya died in 1529; at Talikota the army was led by Aliya Rama Raya, regent for Sadashiva Raya.
Answer: B
Consider the following pairs of monument and city:
- Gol Gumbaz — Bijapur
- Charminar — Hyderabad
- Madrasa of Mahmud Gawan — Bidar
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Solution
All three are correct. The Gol Gumbaz is the tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah of Bijapur; the Charminar (1591) was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda; Mahmud Gawan built his madrasa at the Bahmani capital, Bidar (1472).
Answer: A
Mains
Vijayanagara architecture built on earlier south Indian traditions while developing distinctive features of its own. Discuss with reference to Hampi.
Solution
Introduction: The Vijayanagara rulers (1336–1565 at Hampi) were great builders. Their capital, now a World Heritage Site (1986), shows a mature phase of the Dravida tradition.
Body:
- Continuity: Dravida temple plan inherited from the Cholas, Pandyas and Hoysalas — sanctum, vimana, enclosure walls, tanks.
- Distinctive features: massive raya gopurams that dwarf the central shrine; kalyana mandapas for the deity’s wedding; pillars carved with rearing horses and yalis; separate shrines for the goddess (amman); the stone chariot of the Vitthala temple.
- Narrative art: Ramayana panels at the Hazara Rama temple.
- Secular and composite buildings: the Lotus Mahal and Elephant Stables blend Indo-Islamic arches and domes with Indian forms — evidence of contact with the Deccan sultanates.
- Urban design: royal and sacred centres, water channels and tanks, the Mahanavami platform.
Conclusion: Vijayanagara architecture was both a culmination of south Indian temple building and a meeting point with Deccani Indo-Islamic forms — a legacy carried on by the Nayaka temples of Madurai and elsewhere.
Quick Revision
| Point | One-liner |
|---|---|
| Founders | Harihara I and Bukka I, 1336; Vidyaranya (tradition) |
| Dynasties | Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu |
| Krishnadevaraya | 1509–1529; Amuktamalyada; Ashtadiggajas |
| Talikota | 1565; Aliya Rama Raya; Berar absent |
| Administration | Nayankara (amaram); twelve ayagars |
| Coin | Gold varaha (pagoda) |
| Bahmani | 1347; Gulbarga → Bidar; Mahmud Gawan (executed 1481) |
| Deccan sultanates | Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, Bidar, Berar |
| Monuments | Hampi (UNESCO 1986); Gol Gumbaz; Charminar (1591) |
Key Takeaways
- Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis were born from the same crisis — revolts against Muhammad bin Tughlaq — and fought for two centuries over the Raichur doab.
- Travellers’ accounts are the richest source for Vijayanagara; learn who came under whom.
- For Mains, Hampi’s architecture and the nayankara system are the most useful themes.
Related Topics
- The Delhi Sultanate: Polity, Administration and Culture
- Delhi Sultanate — quick revision
- Delhi Sultanate — practice questions
- Southern Kingdoms and the Cholas
- The Mughal Empire