Shivaji and the Rise of the Marathas
Marathas for UPSC — Shivaji and his forts, Ashtapradhan, chauth and sardeshmukhi, the Peshwas, the confederacy, Third Panipat and the 2025 UNESCO listing.
SyllabusGS I · History of India (Prelims); Indian culture — salient aspects of art forms, literature and architecture from ancient to modern times (Mains GS I)
Prerequisites: The Mughal Empire: Administration and Culture
The Hook: Twelve Forts on the World Heritage List
In July 2025 UNESCO inscribed the “Maratha Military Landscapes of India” on the World Heritage List — India’s 44th World Heritage Site. It covers twelve forts: Salher, Shivneri, Lohagad, Khanderi, Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg and Sindhudurg in Maharashtra, and Gingee in Tamil Nadu — hill forts, coastal forts and island forts that together formed a defensive network.
The question this raises: how did a regional power, built on hill forts and light cavalry, challenge the Mughal Empire and become the strongest Indian power of the eighteenth century?
The Core Concept
Why the Marathas rose
- Geography: the rugged Sahyadri (Western Ghats) and the Konkan coast — ideal for forts and guerrilla warfare (ganimi kava).
- Experience: Maratha chiefs had served the Deccan sultanates of Ahmadnagar and Bijapur as soldiers and revenue officials — Shivaji’s father Shahji Bhonsle among them.
- Social and cultural bonds: the Marathi language and the Bhakti saints of Maharashtra — Jnaneshwar, Eknath, Tukaram and Ramdas — fostered a shared regional identity.
- Opportunity: the decline of the Deccan sultanates and the strain of Mughal expansion southward.
Shivaji (1630–1680)
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1630 | Born at Shivneri fort, near Junnar, to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai |
| 1646 | Captured Torna; built up a chain of forts (Rajgad and others) |
| 1659 | Killed Bijapur’s general Afzal Khan near Pratapgad |
| 1663 | Night raid on the Mughal governor Shaista Khan in Pune |
| 1664 | Sacked Surat, the chief Mughal port |
| 1665 | Treaty of Purandar with Raja Jai Singh of Amber, Aurangzeb’s general — surrendered 23 forts |
| 1666 | Visited Aurangzeb’s court at Agra; placed under house arrest; escaped |
| 1674 | Coronation at Raigad; took the title Chhatrapati |
| 1677–78 | Karnataka expedition — captured Gingee and Vellore |
| 1680 | Died at Raigad |
He also built a navy and sea forts such as Sindhudurg, to counter the Siddis of Janjira and European powers.
Shivaji’s administration
The Ashtapradhan — council of eight ministers
| Minister | Responsibility |
|---|---|
| Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan) | General administration — the chief minister |
| Amatya (Majumdar) | Finance and accounts |
| Mantri (Waqia-navis) | The king’s daily records and court affairs |
| Sachiv (Surnavis) | Royal correspondence |
| Sumant (Dabir) | Foreign affairs |
| Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat) | Commander of the army |
| Nyayadhish | Justice |
| Panditrao (Danadhyaksha) | Religious affairs and charity |
All the ministers except the Nyayadhish and Panditrao could hold military commands. The council was advisory; the king decided.
Revenue
- Land was surveyed and measured with a measuring rod (kathi); assessment was fixed in cash or kind, and Shivaji preferred paying officials in cash rather than through hereditary land assignments.
- Chauth — one-fourth of the land revenue, claimed from territories outside Shivaji’s kingdom in return for protection from Maratha raids.
- Sardeshmukhi — an additional one-tenth, claimed on the basis that Shivaji was the hereditary sardeshmukh (head deshmukh) of the region.
Army and forts
- Light cavalry: bargirs (horses and arms supplied by the state) and shiledars (who brought their own); hill infantry (mavalas).
- Each fort was placed under three officers of equal status — the havaldar, sabnis and sarnaubat — so that no single commander could betray it.
After Shivaji
| Ruler / phase | Highlights |
|---|---|
| Sambhaji (1680–1689) | Fought the Mughals; captured and executed on Aurangzeb’s orders (1689) |
| Rajaram (1689–1700) | Directed resistance from Gingee |
| Tarabai | Rajaram’s widow; led resistance on behalf of her son |
| Shahu | Released by the Mughals in 1707; won the succession struggle (Battle of Khed, 1707); a separate line continued at Kolhapur |
The Peshwas
| Peshwa | Highlights |
|---|---|
| Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720) | In 1719 secured Mughal recognition of Maratha rights to chauth and sardeshmukhi in the six Deccan provinces, through the Sayyid brothers |
| Baji Rao I (1720–1740) | Defeated the Nizam at Palkhed (1728); expanded into Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand; raided up to the outskirts of Delhi (1737); his brother Chimaji Appa took Bassein from the Portuguese (1739) |
| Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb, 1740–1761) | After Shahu’s death the Peshwa became the effective head of state; Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761) |
| Madhavrao I (1761–1772) | Restored Maratha power after Panipat |
| Later | Factional struggles; Nana Fadnavis; Mahadji Scindia dominated Delhi; Baji Rao II signed the subsidiary Treaty of Bassein (1802) with the British |
Third Battle of Panipat (1761): the Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau fought Ahmad Shah Abdali, supported by the Rohilla chief Najib-ud-Daula and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh. The Maratha defeat, including the death of the Peshwa’s son Vishwasrao, checked their northward expansion and indirectly helped the rise of the English East India Company.
The Maratha confederacy
| House | Seat |
|---|---|
| Peshwa | Pune |
| Gaekwad | Baroda |
| Bhonsle | Nagpur |
| Holkar | Indore |
| Scindia (Shinde) | Gwalior |
Ahilyabai Holkar (ruled 1767–1795) governed from Maheshwar and built or restored temples, ghats and rest-houses across India, including the Kashi Vishwanath temple at Varanasi (1780).
Decline: internal rivalry, the weakness of later Peshwas, the subsidiary alliance, and three Anglo-Maratha Wars — the First (1775–1782, Treaty of Salbai), the Second (1803–1805) and the Third (1817–1818), after which the Peshwaship was abolished.
graph TD
A[Shivaji: forts and swarajya] --> B[Coronation at Raigad 1674]
B --> C[Sambhaji, Rajaram, Tarabai: war with Aurangzeb]
C --> D[Shahu and the Peshwas]
D --> E[Baji Rao I: northward expansion]
E --> F[Panipat 1761]
F --> G[Confederacy: Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad, Bhonsle]
G --> H[Anglo-Maratha Wars; end of Peshwaship 1818]Memory Anchors
Ashtapradhan: “Please Ask My Sister Sita Soon Not Papa” → Peshwa, Amatya, Mantri, Sachiv, Sumant, Senapati, Nyayadhish, Panditrao.
Taxes: Chauth = quarter (chau sounds like four); Sardeshmukhi = one-tenth extra.
Fort trio: “His Strong Sentries” → Havaldar, Sabnis, Sarnaubat.
For Prelims
- Shivaji born at Shivneri; crowned at Raigad (1674); Treaty of Purandar (1665) with Jai Singh.
- Afzal Khan — Pratapgad (1659); Shaista Khan — Pune (1663); Surat — 1664.
- Chauth = 1/4; Sardeshmukhi = additional 1/10.
- Panditrao — religious affairs; Sumant — foreign affairs; Sachiv — correspondence.
- Third Panipat — 14 January 1761; Sadashivrao Bhau vs Ahmad Shah Abdali.
- Maratha Military Landscapes — 12 forts (11 in Maharashtra + Gingee, Tamil Nadu); UNESCO, July 2025.
For Mains
- Dimensions: regional state formation; military innovation (forts, light cavalry, navy); administrative and revenue system; role of the Bhakti movement and Marathi in regional identity; the confederacy and its weaknesses; heritage value of fort networks.
- Keywords: swarajya, Ashtapradhan, chauth, sardeshmukhi, ganimi kava, confederacy, subsidiary alliance.
- Value-addition: the 2025 World Heritage inscription of the fort network; Ahilyabai Holkar as an example of welfare-oriented rule; the 1719 grant of chauth and sardeshmukhi as a turning point in Maratha–Mughal relations.
Common Traps
In the News
- July 2025 — “Maratha Military Landscapes of India” inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Practice
Prelims
Consider the following pairs of member of the Ashtapradhan and responsibility:
- Peshwa — general administration
- Sumant — foreign affairs
- Sachiv — royal correspondence
- Panditrao — command of the army
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Solution
Pairs 1, 2 and 3 are correct. The Panditrao was in charge of religious affairs and charity; the army was under the Senapati. Three pairs are correct.
Answer: C
Consider the following statements:
- Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue.
- Sardeshmukhi was an additional one-tenth of the revenue.
- Both were collected mainly from the core territory of Shivaji’s own kingdom.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Solution
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: chauth and sardeshmukhi were claimed from territories outside Shivaji’s kingdom — in return for protection from raids, and on the basis of his claim to be the hereditary sardeshmukh.
Answer: A
Consider the following statements about the Third Battle of Panipat:
- It was fought on 14 January 1761.
- The Maratha forces were commanded by Sadashivrao Bhau against Ahmad Shah Abdali.
- Baji Rao I was the Peshwa at the time.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Solution
Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: the Peshwa was Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb). Baji Rao I had died in 1740.
Answer: D
Mains
Discuss the main features of Shivaji’s administrative system.
Solution
Introduction: Shivaji (1630–1680), crowned at Raigad in 1674, built a compact, well-organised state in the Deccan while resisting both the Mughals and the Deccan sultanates.
Body:
- Central government: the king assisted by the Ashtapradhan — eight ministers with defined duties (Peshwa, Amatya, Mantri, Sachiv, Sumant, Senapati, Nyayadhish, Panditrao); advisory, not binding.
- Revenue: land surveyed and measured; preference for paying officials in cash over hereditary assignments; chauth and sardeshmukhi from outside territories.
- Military: light cavalry (bargirs, shiledars), hill infantry, guerrilla tactics; a navy and sea forts.
- Forts: the backbone of defence; each under three officers of equal status (havaldar, sabnis, sarnaubat) as a check on betrayal.
- Limits: dependence on chauth from neighbours bred hostility; the system relied heavily on the ruler’s personal ability.
Conclusion: Shivaji’s administration combined Deccani revenue practice with military innovation; its fort network, now a World Heritage Site, remains its most visible legacy.
Quick Revision
| Point | One-liner |
|---|---|
| Shivaji | Shivneri (1630) → Raigad coronation (1674) → died 1680 |
| Purandar | 1665; Jai Singh; 23 forts surrendered |
| Ashtapradhan | Eight ministers; Peshwa = chief minister |
| Taxes | Chauth 1/4; sardeshmukhi +1/10 |
| Forts | Havaldar, sabnis, sarnaubat |
| 1719 | Mughal grant of chauth and sardeshmukhi (Balaji Vishwanath) |
| Baji Rao I | Palkhed 1728; northward expansion |
| Panipat III | 14 January 1761 |
| Confederacy | Peshwa, Gaekwad, Bhonsle, Holkar, Scindia |
| UNESCO | 12 forts; July 2025 |
Key Takeaways
- Geography, fort networks and mobile cavalry let the Marathas wear down the much larger Mughal army.
- Shivaji’s state rested on the Ashtapradhan, a measured revenue system and cash-paid officials; chauth and sardeshmukhi extended Maratha reach beyond their borders.
- After 1761 the confederacy’s internal divisions opened the way for British expansion.
Related Topics
- The Mughal Empire: Administration and Culture
- The Mughal Empire — quick revision
- The Mughal Empire — practice questions
- British Expansion and Administration
- Advent of the Europeans